Cao Cao 曹操, one of the most prominent warlords of the late Eastern Han dynasty 東漢 (25–220), played a pivotal role in the political and military upheavals of his time. His influence helped pave the way for the establishment of the Cao Wei 曹魏 dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms 三國. Cao Cao 曹操 is known for his military genius, shrewd political strategies, and the centralisation of power, but his legacy also extends to administrative reforms.
The Jiupin Zhongzheng Zhi 九品中正制, commonly referred to as the ‘Nine-Rank System’ or ‘Nine Grades System’, was a method of official recruitment and classification used primarily during the Wei 魏 (220–266) and later the Jin 晉 dynasty (266–420). It is often attributed to the political reforms of Cao Cao’s 曹操 son, Cao Pi 曹丕, who formally established the Wei 魏 dynasty after the fall of the Han 漢. The Nine-Rank System 九品中正制 was implemented in the Three Kingdoms 三國 era, after the chaos of war made it difficult to maintain the previous systems of recruitment and appointment, which had been based on the recommendation of local officials.
The Nine-Rank System 九品中正制 was created to address the need for a more organised way to select and rank bureaucratic officials in an era of growing centralisation. The system classified officials into nine ranks, from highest to lowest, based on their abilities, character, and social connections. A central feature of this system was the use of local Zhongzheng 中正 (officials known as “Arbiters of Merit”) who were appointed to evaluate the moral character, competence, and family background of potential candidates.
While the system sought to create an efficient bureaucracy, it had several key features:
-
Merit and Family Influence: Though initially intended to be meritocratic, over time, family background and social connections heavily influenced rankings. As a result, noble families dominated the upper ranks, creating a hereditary elite, which diluted the original intent of rewarding merit.
-
The Nine Ranks: Officials were classified into nine grades (from highest to lowest), with each grade subdivided into upper, middle, and lower tiers. This hierarchical structure aimed to create a more organised system of promotions within the imperial bureaucracy.
-
Criticism and Evolution: Over time, the system became criticised for its heavy reliance on aristocratic connections, as well as for favouring the wealthy elite over talented individuals from humble backgrounds. It eventually contributed to the decline in governmental efficiency during the Jin dynasty 晉朝 and was reformed during the Sui 隋 and Tang 唐 dynasties.
Although the Nine-Rank System is typically associated with the Wei 魏 dynasty under Cao Pi’s 曹丕 reign, it was Cao Cao’s 曹操 policies and vision that laid the groundwork. Cao Cao 曹操 sought to weaken the power of the Han 漢 aristocracy by implementing reforms that centralised authority and reduced the influence of powerful regional warlords. His use of the Juntian 均田 system (Equal Field system), for instance, was aimed at addressing social inequality and redistributing land more equitably. His administrative reforms, emphasis on talent over birth, and use of military officers as civil administrators were all steps that foreshadowed the eventual establishment of the Nine-Rank 九品中正制 System.
In short, while Cao Cao 曹操 himself did not create the Nine-Rank 九品中正制 System, his administrative reforms and centralisation efforts paved the way for his successors to implement such a system in their attempt to streamline governance during the chaotic Three Kingdoms 三國 period.
A Note on Martial Arts Systems
The Jiupin Zhongzheng Zhi 九品中正制 system laid the cultural foundation for many grading systems, influencing not only government bureaucracies but also the structures of ancient martial arts schools, including Shaolin 少林. While these early systems adopted a nine-rank hierarchy, the use of colour belts to represent rank/grade is a modern development that began only in the 1970s. Many martial arts schools, even within China, are unaware of the deep historical connection their ranking systems have to the Nine-Rank System. Japan’s martial arts grading system also traces back to the Jiupin Zhongzheng Zhi 九品中正制. However, the Japanese later adapted it to a ten-rank system to align with local traditions, ultimately inspiring the belt-based rank structure we see today.
References:
-
Rafe de Crespigny, Imperial Warlord: A Biography of Cao Cao 155-220 AD. Brill, 2010.
- This biography provides a detailed account of Cao Cao’s political and military career, including his reforms and contributions to the early Wei dynasty.
-
Yuan Wei 袁煒, The Nine-Rank System in Chinese History 《中國歷史上的九品中正制》. Zhonghua Book Company, 1997.
- This book provides an in-depth analysis of the Jiupin Zhongzheng Zhi 九品中正制 and its development from the Wei to the Jin dynasty, including how the system evolved under Cao Pi’s reign.
-
Albert E. Dien, The Six Dynasties Civilization. Yale University Press, 2007.
- This work discusses the political and administrative changes during the Six Dynasties period, focusing on the Nine-Rank System and its impact on Chinese bureaucracy and aristocracy.
-
Sima Guang 司馬光, Zizhi Tongjian 《資治通鑑》. Completed in 1084.
- This is a primary historical text that covers the late Eastern Han and the Three Kingdoms period. It gives a chronological account of the events leading up to and following the implementation of the Nine-Rank System.
-
Mou Zhongjian 牟宗健, Studies on the History of the Cao Wei Dynasty 《曹魏歷史研究》. Renmin University Press, 2005.
- This book contains a comprehensive study of the Cao Wei dynasty, focusing on the political, administrative, and social reforms initiated during this period, including the Nine-Rank System.
-
Loewe, Michael, The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220. Cambridge University Press, 1986.
- Provides historical context on the late Han dynasty and the sociopolitical changes that led to the establishment of the Wei dynasty, setting the foundation for later systems like the Nine-Rank System.
